The Mamluks quickly rose from a caste of enslaved people to rulers within the Dar Al-Islam. What were the social classes in the Mamluk Sultanate? [65] In a bid to consolidate his control, Lajin attempted to redistribute iqtaat to his supporters. [30] The Bahriyyah and Jamdariyyah were represented by their patron, Faris ad-Din Aktay, a principal organizer of Turanshah's assassination and the recipient of Fakhr ad-Din's large estate by Shajar al-Durr; the latter saw Aktay as a counterweight to Aybak. The lower-ranking emirs also had their own corps, which were akin to private armies. That is, until the Mamluk Massacre of 1811. In addition, his diplomacy was also intended to maintain the flow of Turkic mamluks from Mongol-held Central Asia. [148] Under certain Ayyubid sultans, Egypt had paramountcy over the Syrian provinces, but under the Mamluks this paramountcy was consistent and absolute. [35] Their deaths left a relative power vacuum in Egypt, with Aybak's teenage son, al-Mansur Ali, as heir to the sultanate. Packed within defensive walls, the cities grew vertically, new temples and mosques built to tower over the older ones, only to be overshadowed by even newer buildings. As such it was a fundamental feature of Mamluk society, on the one hand giving way to a military hierarchy that crystallized into an even more developed economic hierarchy and that had substantial economic interests in society at large; on the other hand, it deeply characterized the realm's economic and social development, its agriculture, grain trade, and rural demography in particular. [78] By January 1342, however, Qawsun and Kujuk were toppled, and the latter's half-brother, an-Nasir Ahmad of al-Karak, was declared sultan. [164] To that end, he began the system of assigning emirs ranks of ten, forty and one hundred, with the particular number indicating how many mounted mamluk troops were assigned to an emir's command. [90] Afterward, he managed to bring to Egypt his father Anas and many of his kinsmen,[90] possibly in an attempt to establish a power base outside of the Mamluk establishment. [29] He served as the principal bulwark against the more junior Bahri and Jamdari elements of the Salihiyyah, and his promotion to atabeg al-askar was met by Bahri rioting in Cairo, the first of many examples of intra-Salihi tensions surrounding Aybak's ascendancy. Imported luxury goods from the east sometimes influenced local artistic vocabularies, as exemplified by the incorporation of Chinese motifs into both objects and architecture. [136] The Maronite Church was especially suspected by the Mamluks of collaboration with the Europeans due to the high degree of relations between the Maronite Church and the papacy in Rome and the Christian European powers, particularly Cyprus. [97] To that end, Barquq dispatched the Berber Hawwara tribesmen of the Nile Delta to Upper Egypt to keep the Arab tribes in check. [148] Generally, the vice-regent of Egypt was the most senior na'ib, followed by the governor of Damascus, then Aleppo, then the governors of al-Karak, Safad, Tripoli, Homs and Hama. [51] Furthermore, the Mamluks also received the submission of king Adur of al-Abwab further south. [126] The Mamluk government, often under the official banner of the Pact of Umar which gave Christians and Jews dhimmi (protected peoples) status, ultimately determined the taxes that Christians and Jews paid to the sultanate, including the jizyah (tax on non-Muslims), whether a house of worship could be constructed and the public appearance of Christians and Jews. In May 1285, he captured the Marqab fortress and garrisoned it. [156] Besides his khushdashiyyah, the sultan derived power from other emirs, with whom there was constant tension, particularly in times of peace with external enemies. [190] Early into their rule, the Mamluks sought to expand their role in foreign trade, and to this end Baybars signed a commercial treaty with Genoa, while Qalawun signed a similar agreement with Ceylon. Crime and Punishment in Industrial Britain, Advantages of North and South in Civil War, African Americans in the Revolutionary War, Civil War Military Strategies of North and South, Environmental Effects of The Columbian Exchange, Native Americans in the Revolutionary War. [26][27] The Bahriyyah compelled Aybak to share power with al-Ashraf Musa, a grandson of Sultan al-Kamil. [75] This partially explains his purges of the thousands of mamluks purchased by his predecessors. [123] Other Sufi orders with large numbers of adherents were the Rifa'iyyah and Badawiyyah. [32], Afterward, Aybak proceeded to purge those in his retinue and in the Salihiyyah whom he believed were disloyal to him, causing a temporary exodus of Bahri mamluks, most of whom settled in Gaza, but also in Upper Egypt and Syria. [84] The emirs Shaykhu and Sirghitmish deposed Salih and restored Hasan in a coup in 1355, after which Hasan gradually purged Taz, Shaykhu and Sirghitmish and their mamluks from his administration. [117] The Mamluk elites of the Burji period were also apparently proud of their Circassian origins. Although not in the same form as under the Sultanate, the Ottoman Empire retained the Mamluks as an Egyptian ruling class and the Mamluks and the Burji family succeeded in regaining much of their influence, but remained vassals of the Ottomans. [199] Some art forms also varied in importance over time. [177], Agriculture was the primary source of revenue in the Mamluk economy. The Ilkhanate licked their wounds and returned the same year, only to be defeated again at the First Battle of Homs. [98] Faraj was able to hold onto power during this turbulent period, which in addition to Timur's devastating raids, the rise of Turkic tribes in Jazira and attempts by Barquq's emirs to topple Faraj, also saw a famine in Egypt in 1403, a severe plague in 1405 and a Bedouin revolt that virtually ended the Mamluks' hold over Upper Egypt between 1401 and 1413. Winter, ed. Will you pass the quiz? [146], The Mamluks did not significantly alter the administrative, legal and economic systems that they inherited from the Ayyubid state. [97], During Barquq's reign, in 1387, the Mamluks were able to force the Anatolian entity in Sivas to become a Mamluk vassal state. Philipp and Haarmann 1998, p. 96. On 24 August 1516, at the Battle of Marj Dabiq, al-Ghawri was killed. [126] Jews generally fared better than Christians, and the latter experienced more difficulty under Mamluk rule than under previous Muslim powers. Inal's reign was particularly noted by historians for the severe absence of restraint among the roughly 1,000 mamluks under his direct authority, known as the julban or ajlab.The julban were responsible for mass disturbances throughout the sultanate. [92], Barquq solidified his control over the sultanate in 1393, when his forces killed the major opponent to his rule, Mintash, in Syria. The halqa regiments declined in the 14th century when professional non-mamluk soldiers generally stopped joining the force. [215], After the Ottoman conquest of 1517, new Ottoman-style buildings were introduced, however the Mamluk style continued to be repeated or combined with Ottoman elements in many subsequent monuments. [20] Opposition among the Salihiyyah to as-Salih rose when the latter ordered the assassination of his brother Abu Bakr al-Adil in 1249, a task that affronted many of the Salihiyyah and by whom was rejected; four of the Salihiyyah ultimately agreed to execute the controversial operation. [162] The Royal Mamluks were virtually the private corps of the sultan. By registering you get free access to our website and app (available on desktop AND mobile) which will help you to super-charge your learning process. [187], Among the responsibilities of a Mamluk provincial or district governor were repopulating depopulated areas to foster agricultural production, protecting the lands from Bedouin raids, increasing productivity in barren lands[186] (likely through the upkeep and expansion of existing irrigation networks),[188] and devoting special attention to the cultivation of the more arable low-lying regions. The Ayyubids had owed their allegiance to the Abbasid Caliphate, but the latter was destroyed when the Mongols sacked the Abbasid capital Baghdad in 1258 and killed Caliph al-Musta'sim. ", "A Damascene Eyewitness to the Battle of Nicopolis", "The Complex of Sultan Hasan in Cairo: Reading Between the Lines", "Social Milieus and Worldviews in Mamluk Adab-Encyclopedias: The Example of Poverty and Wealth", "The Position and Power of the Mamluk Sultan", "The Military Institution and Innovation in the Late Mamluk Period", "Representing the Mamluks in Mamluk Historical Writing", "Identifying a Late Medieval Cadastral Survey of Egypt", "Introduction: Constantinople and Granada, Christian-Muslim Interaction 1350-1516", "The Re-Emergence of the Mamluks Following the Ottoman Conquest", "The Term Mamlk and Slave Status during the Mamluk Sultanate", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mamluk_Sultanate&oldid=1132582141, States and territories established in 1250, States and territories disestablished in 1517, Pages using infobox country or infobox former country with the flag caption or type parameters, Wikipedia articles needing clarification from December 2021, Articles to be expanded from February 2022, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0. [15] Each Ayyubid sultan and high-ranking emir had a private mamluk corps. The rumor, accentuated by the execution of civilian notables who evacuated Damietta, provoked a mutiny by the garrison of his camp in al-Mansurah, which included numerous Salihi mamluks. Decorative motifs in one art form were often applied in other art forms, including architecture. [22] However, Turanshah sought to challenge the dominance of the Salihiyyah in the paramilitary apparatus by promoting his Kurdish retinue from Upper Mesopotamia ("al-Jazira" in Arabic) and the Levant as a counterweight to the predominantly Turkic Salihiyyah. The Mamluk Sultanate was a state that ruled Egypt, the Levant and the Hejaz (western Arabia) in the mid-13th-early 16th centuries. Although the Crusade was a catastrophe for the Christian forces, initial differing strategies between the reigning Sultan and Mamluks resulted in the execution of many military commanders. [47] According to historian Thomas Asbridge, the methods used to capture Arsuf demonstrated the "Mamluks' grasp of siegecraft and their overwhelming numerical and technological supremacy". Sell on Amazon Other Sellers on Amazon Added Not added Add to Cart View Cart $31.81 & FREE Shipping Sold by: Book Depository US Sold by: Book Depository US (948804 ratings) 91% positive over last 12 months In stock. Late mamluk minarets, for example, most typically had an octagonal shaft for the first tier, a round shaft on the second, and a lantern structure with finial on the third level. The Mamluks were distinctly Islamic, but many Christians and Jews lived within their Sultanate. 2016 by Bethany J. Walker, Sofia Laparidou, Annette Hansen, and Chiara Corbino. [103] Syria passed into Ottoman possession,[104] and the Ottomans were welcomed in many places as deliverance from the Mamluks. The Crusade ended with King Louis IX defeated and ransomed back to France for a hefty sum (some historians estimate the ransom to be equivalent to a third of France's economy at the time). [197] This contributed to and coincided with the fall of the sultanate. They then conquered or gained suzerainty over the Ayyubids' Syrian principalities. [165] Starting with the reign of Qalawun, the sultan and the military administration maintained lists of all emirs throughout the sultanate and defined their roles as part of the right or left flanks of the army should they be mobilized for war. Shah Ismail I sent an embassy to Venice and Syria inviting them to join arms and recover the territory taken from them by the Ottoman Empire. However, in 1256, he dispatched a Bahri-led expedition to Egypt, but no battle occurred when Aybak met an-Nasir Yusuf's army. [65] Early into an-Nasir Muhammad's second reign, the Ilkhanids, whose leader, Mahmud Ghazan, had converted to Islam, invaded Syria and routed a Mamluk army near Homs in the Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar in 1299. The Mamluks were well trained in combat, governance, and other skills in their slavery, equipping them with the tools necessary to rule a state. [169] The ustadar was often referred to as the ustadar al-aliyah (grand master of the house) to distinguish from ustadar saghirs (lesser majordomos) whose authority was subordinate to the ustadar al-aliyah and who oversaw specific aspects of the court and citadel, such as the sultan's treasury, private property and the kitchens of the citadel. [206][204], The cruciform or four-iwan floor plan was adopted for madrasas and became more common for new monumental complexes than the traditional hypostyle mosque, although the vaulted iwans of the early period were replaced with flat-roofed iwans in the later period. [203], Mamluk architecture is distinguished in part by the construction of multi-functional buildings whose floor plans became increasingly creative and complex due to the limited available space in the city and the desire to make monuments visually dominant in their urban surroundings. On January 25, the Mamluk Sultanate collapsed. When word of his death reached Hulagu, the Ilkhanate's Khan pulled back to Mongolia with a large portion of his army. [100] However, following his death, a Circassian emir, Tatar, married Shaykh's widow, ousted the atabeg al-asakir and assumed power. Commercial International Bank (CIB) Industrial Development Bank of Egypt. It was ruled by a military caste of mamluks (manumitted slave soldiers) headed by the sultan. [145] In the mid-14th century, Bedouin tribes in Upper Egypt, namely the rival Arak and Banu Hilal, became the de facto rulers of the region, forcing the Mamluks to rely on them for tax collection. those soldiers who were imported while young slaves. However, Louis IX died, allowing the Mamluks to refocus their efforts at further conquests of Crusader territories in Syria, including the County of Tripoli's Krak des Chevaliers fortress, which Baybars captured in 1271. [100] Tatar died three months into his reign and was succeeded by Barsbay, another Circassian emir of Barquq, in 1422. [178] In the Mamluk era, the iqta was an emir's principal source of income,[179] and starting in 1337,[180] Mamluk iqta holders would lease or sell rights to their iqtaat to non-mamluks in order to derive greater revenues. Timur ended his occupation of Syria in 1402 to pursue his war against the Ottomans in Anatolia, who he deemed to be a more dangerous threat to his rule. [110], Although Arabic was used as the administrative language of the sultanate, a variety of Kipchak Turkic, namely the Mamluk-Kipchak language was the spoken language of the Mamluk ruling elite. Mamluk sultans were known as Sultans of Egypt and Syria. [19], As the Crusaders advanced, as-Salih died and was succeeded by his son al-Muazzam Turanshah,[21] who was in al-Jazira (Upper Mesopotamia) at the time. [76], To legitimize their rule, the Mamluks presented themselves as the defenders of Islam, and, beginning with Baybars, sought the confirmation of their executive authority from a caliph. [131] By the end of the Mamluk period, the ratio of Muslims to Christians in Egypt may have risen to 10:1. The Mamluks came to Egypt largely from the Turkic tribes of Central Asia and the Caucuses. [74] The latter situation applied to the sultans Baybars, Qalawun, the latter's son, an-Nasir Muhammad and Barquq, who formally arranged for one or more of their sons to succeed them. The Mamluk Sultanate (14th and 15th Centuries) Asia at the Death of Kublai Khan (1294 CE) Sufi Orders (1145-1389 CE) Travels of Ibn Battuta (1325-1354 CE) [158] Three years later, Baybars reestablished the institution of the caliphate by making a member of the Abbasid family, al-Mustansir, caliph, who in turn confirmed Baybars as sultan. [174], The Mamluks created an administrative body called the hisbah to supervise the market, with a muhtasib (inspector-general) in charge of the body. [202], Glass lamps were another high point of Mamluk art, particularly those commissioned for mosques. The Mamluk Sultanate A History Published online by Cambridge University Press: 05 May 2022 Carl F. Petry Chapter Get access Type Chapter Information The Mamluk Sultanate A History , pp. [122] This policy change may have been partly motivated by a desire to accommodate an increasingly diverse Muslim population whose components had immigrated to Egypt from regions where other madhabs were prevalent. [72] He then assigned emirates to over thirty of his own mamluks. Mamluk history is generally divided into the Turkic or Bahri period (12501382) and the Circassian or Burji period (13821517), called after the predominant ethnicity or corps of the ruling Mamluks during these respective eras.[5][6][7][8][9]. The Mamluks defeated the Mongolian Ilkhanate on multiple occasions, exhibiting their martial power and leading to a peace treaty in the 14th century. [4] In addition, the caliph recognized the sultan's authority over Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia, Diyarbakir, the Hejaz and Yemen and any territory conquered from the Crusaders or Mongols. [157] A Mamluk sultan or his appointees led the annual Hajj pilgrimage caravans from Cairo and Damascus in the capacity of amir al-hajj (commander of the Hajj caravan). [14] Mamluk regiments constituted the backbone of Egypt's military under Ayyubid rule in the late 12th and early 13th centuries, beginning with Sultan Saladin (r.11741193) who replaced the Fatimids' black African infantry with mamluks. [28][33] The purge led to a dearth of military support for Aybak, which in turn led to Aybak's recruitment of new supporters from among the army in Egypt and the Turkic Nasiri and Azizi mamluks from Syria, who had defected from their Ayyubid masters, namely an-Nasir Yusuf, and moved to Egypt in 1250. He mobilized a force of some 120,000 soldiers and gained the support of his main Mamluk rival, Baybars. [172] In Egypt in particular, the Nile River's centralizing influence also contributed to Mamluk centralization over the region. [110] The Mamluks contributed to the expansion of Arabic in Egypt through their victory over the Mongols and the Crusaders and the subsequent creation of a Muslim haven in Egypt and Syria for Arabic-speaking immigrants from other conquered Muslim lands. [98], Faraj was toppled in 1412 by the Syria-based emirs, Tanam, Jakam, Nawruz and al-Mu'ayyad Shaykh, who Faraj sent a total of seven military expeditions against during his reign. Ceramic production was relatively less important overall, in part because Chinese porcelains were widely available. Delhi Sultanate allowed for a more self-reflective, linear foundation of the Sultanate in the practices of Muslim statecraft. [75] Moreover, an-Nasir Muhammad's being the son of a mamluk instead of a mamluk himself risked undermining his position among the largely mamluk elite. [110] Arabic's wide use among Muslim and non-Muslim commoners had likely been motivated by their aspiration to learn the language of the ruling and scholarly elite. metal-faced doors, doorknockers, window grilles, and window shutters, and aims to . [106] The Mamluk influence remained a force in Egyptian politics until their abrupt end at the hands of Muhammad Ali in 1811. [88] Yalbugha was subsequently killed by his own mamluks in an uprising in 1366. [164] Baybars instituted uniformity within the army and put an end to the previous improvised nature of the various Ayyubid military forces of Egypt and Syria. In an event greatly favoring the Mamluks, the Mongol Empire's leader Mongke Khan died in 1259 at the precipice of Hulagu Khan's invasion of Africa. [108] After Muhammad Ali defeated the Mamluks and Bedouin, the Bedouin went on a destructive rampage against the Egyptian fellahin peasantry, destroying and looting crops and massacred 200 townsmen in Belbeis in Al-Sharqiya province and also rampaging through al-Qaliubiyya province. Tall, increasingly vertical building meant to dominate city streets within tightening city walls. [100] To that end, his fiscal administrator led tax collection expeditions that were akin to plundering throughout the sultanate to compensate for the tax arrears that had accumulated under Faraj's reign. [82], Following Hajji's death, the senior emirs of an-Nasir Muhammad hastily appointed another of his sons, the twelve-year-old an-Nasir Hasan. [177] The iqta of the Muslims differed from the European concept of fiefs in that iqta represented a right to collect revenue from a fixed territory and was accorded to an officer (emir) as income and as a financial source to provision his soldiers. Monumental decorated entrance portals became common compared to earlier periods, often carved with muqarnas. This work is made available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (CC-BY). [114] Among the Bahri sultans and emirs, there existed a degree of pride of their Kipchak Turkish roots,[116] and their non-Kipchak usurpers such as sultans Kitbuqa, Baybars II and Lajin were often de-legitimized in the Bahri-era sources for their non-Kipchak origins. [111] According to Petry, "the Mamluks regarded Turkish as their caste's vehicle of communication, even though they themselves spoke Central Asian dialects such as Qipjak, or Circassian, a Caucasic language. [123] It incorporated Sunni Islamic piety with its basis in the Qur'an and hadith, Sufi mysticism, and elements of popular religion such as sainthood, ziyarat (visitation) to the tombs of saintly or religious individuals, and dhikr (invocation of God). Later, the Mamluks included Turks, Georgians, Armenians, Hungarians, Russians, and more. [200] An excellent example of the later period is a series of candlesticks commissioned by Qaytbay for Muhammad's tomb in the Prophet's Mosque in Medina. In doing so, Petry reveals how the Mamluk Sultanate can be regarded as a significant experiment in the history of state-building within the pre-modern . However, Aydughdi's growing ambitions made Aybak view him as a threat. [110] On the other end of the spectrum of Sunni religious expression were the teachings of the Hanbali scholar Ibn Taymiyyah, which emphasized stringent moral rigor based on literal interpretations of the Qur'an and the Sunnah, and a deep hostility to the aspects of mysticism and popular religious innovations promoted by the various Sufi orders. Drought's effects on the population slowed the Ottoman Empire's expansion in the 16th century. TIME PERIOD: 1260 - 1517 CE. [39] Qutuz sent military reinforcements to his erstwhile enemy an-Nasir Yusuf in Syria, and reconciled with the Bahriyyah, including Baybars, who was allowed to return to Egypt, to face the common Mongol threat. Mamluk-period Qur'ans were richly illuminated and exhibit stylistic similarities with those produced under the contemporary Ilkhanids in Iran. Be perfectly prepared on time with an individual plan. [160] The soldiers of the emirs were directly commanded by the emirs, but could be mobilized by the sultan when needed. For God's sakewho pays any heed to the caliph now? [119] In addition, there was a significant minority of Coptic Christians. [92] His rule was challenged in Syria in 1389 during a revolt by the Mamluk governor of Malatya, Mintash, and the governor of Aleppo, Yalbugha an-Nasiri, who was a former mamluk of both an-Nasir Hasan and Yalbugha al-Umari. From bondservants to masters, the Islamic Mamluk warriors continued to prove themselves on the battlefield, in bureaucracy, and as exemplary leaders within the Medieval Dar Al-Islam. [197], Mamluk decorative artsespecially enameled and gilded glass, inlaid metalwork, woodwork, and textileswere prized around the Mediterranean as well as in Europe, where they had a profound impact on local production. In 1323, the two parties signed a peace treaty. Ottoman sultan Selim I captured Cairo on January 20, the center of power transferred then to Constantinople. [71] Following the dtente, an-Nasir Muhammad was able to usher in a period of stability and prosperity in the sultanate through the enacting of major political, economic and military reforms that were ultimately intended to ensure his continued rule and consolidate the Qalawunid-Bahri regime. [113] Ethnic origin was a key component of an individual mamluk's identity, and ethnic identity manifested itself through given names, dress, access to administrative positions and was indicated by a sultan's nisba. of the users don't pass the Mamluks quiz! The Mamluk sultan Qansuh al-Ghawri was warned by the Ottoman sultan Selim I that al-Ghawri was providing the envoys of the Ismail I safe passage through Syria on their way to Venice and harboring refugees. [53], An-Nasir Muhammad died in 1341 and his rule was followed by a succession of his descendants to the throne in a period marked by political instability. [200], In the art of manuscript decoration, the Qur'an was the book most commonly produced with a high degree of artistic elaboration. Natural Resource Management in Syrian Villages. Art depicting a Mamluk horseback rider. [154] Often, the practical restrictions on a sultan's power came from his own khushdashiyyah,[155] defined by historian Amalia Levanoni as "the fostering of a common bond between mamluks who belonged to the household of a single master and their loyalty towards him. [155] The qaranis occasionally constituted a hostile faction to a sultan, such as in the case of Sultan as-Salih Ayyub and the Qalawuni successors of an-Nasir Muhammad. [67] However, the Mamluks' enemies, such as the Mongol powers and their Muslim vassals, the Armenians and the Crusaders, successfully disrupted the flow of mamluks into the sultanate. [155], The sultan was the head of state and among his powers and responsibilities were issuing and enforcing specific legal orders and general rules, making the decision to go to war, levying taxes for military campaigns, ensuring the proportionate distribution of food supplies throughout the sultanate and, in some cases, overseeing the investigation and punishment of alleged criminals. Under Sultan Barsbay major efforts were taken to replenish the treasury, particularly monopolization of trade with Europe and tax expeditions into the countryside. He took the attack to the Mongols. Interactions with the Environment [102], Barsbay launched military expeditions against the Aq Qoyonlu in 1429 and 1433. [160] The halqa had inferior status to the mamluk regiments. [166] The reformation of iqta distribution created a clear link between an emir's rank and the size of his iqta. One such emir, Barquq, overthrew the sultan in 1390, inaugurating Burji rule. For example, Mamluk glassware had an influence on the Venetian glass industry. Source: RomanDeckert, CC-BY-SA-4.0, Wikimedia Commons. [184], Mamluk Egypt was a major producer of textiles and a supplier of raw materials for Western Europe. Seljuk Empire Mamluk Sultanate Delhi Sultanate Geographic Location and Dates they maintained power Social Social classes & social . [87] To restore discipline and unity within the Mamluk state and military, Yalbugha applied the rigorous educational methods used for mamluks during the reigns of sultans Baybars and Qalawun. [131] Many Coptic Christians decided to convert to Islam or at least adopt the outward expressions of Muslim faith to protect their employment, avoid jizyah taxation and avoid official measures against them. Egypt and Syria already possessed a rich tradition of glassmaking prior to this period and Damascus was the most important production center during the Mamluk period. [39] Qutuz then prepared Cairo's defenses to ward off the Mongols' threatened invasion of Egypt, but after hearing news that Hulagu withdrew from Syria to claim the Mongol throne, Qutuz began preparations for the conquest of Syria. In the late 16th century, hundreds of bandits on horseback stormed through the countryside of Ottoman Anatolia raiding villages, inciting violence and destabilizing the sultan's grip on power Four hundred years later and a few hundred miles away in the former Ottoman territory . Mamluks Mamluks Islamic Medicine John Hunter Louis Pasteur Germ Theory Lung Cancer Mass Vaccination Medicine on the Western Front Medieval Surgery Modern Medicine Public Health Acts Public Health in Early Modern Britain The Black Death The Pharmaceutical Industry Theory of the Four Humours Welfare Reforms Spread of Islam Abd al-Malik Abu Bakr [17], As-Salih became sultan of Egypt in 1240, and, upon his accession to the Ayyubid throne, he manumitted and promoted large numbers of his original and newly recruited Mamluks on the condition that they remain in his service. One of the Mamluk Sultanate's first tests and most significant accomplishments would be against the mighty Mongol Empire. They were successful in combat, beating them at the Battle of Ain Jalut and the Battle of Homs. [196] Furthermore, in 1429, he ordered that the spice trade to Europe be conducted through Cairo before goods reached Alexandria, thus attempting to end the direct transportation of spices from the Red Sea to Alexandria. [19], Tensions between as-Salih Ayyub and his mamluks came to a head later in 1249 when Louis IX of France's forces captured Damietta in their bid to conquer Egypt during the Seventh Crusade. In 1254, Aybak had his Mu'izzi mamluks assassinate Aktay in the Citadel of Cairo. [123] The Shadhiliyyah lacked an institutional structure and was flexible in its religious thought, allowing it to easily adapt to its local environment. "The Mamluks and Their Acceptance of Oghuz Turkish as Literary Language: Political Maneuver or Cultural Aspiration? The Mamluk Sultanate ruled Egypt, Syria and the Arabian hinterland along the Red Sea. King Louis IX and a few of his surviving nobles surrendered and were taken as prisoners, effectively ending the Seventh Crusade. 1. [101] The first expedition involved the sacking of Edessa and the massacre of its Muslim inhabitants in retaliation for the Aq Qoyonlu's raids against the Mamluks' Mesopotamian territories. [141] However, during an-Nasir Muhammad's third reign, the Al Fadl were granted high-quality iqtaat in abundance, strengthening the tribe to become the most powerful among the Bedouin of the Syrian Desert region. [187] Furthermore, the maintenance of the Mamluk army in Syria relied on the state's control over Syrian agricultural revenues. In 1263, Baybars deposed al-Mughith of al-Karak based on allegations of collaborating with the Mongol Ilkhanate of Persia, and thus consolidated his authority over Muslim Syria. [182] A second and final rawk was completed in 1315 under Sultan an-Nasir Muhammad and influenced political and economic developments of the Mamluk Sultanate until its fall in the early 16th century. Source: Wikimedia Commons. Egypt, the Levant and the Hejaz (western Arabia). [45], With Bahri power in Egypt and Muslim Syria consolidated by 1265, Baybars launched expeditions against the Crusader fortresses throughout Syria, capturing Arsuf in 1265, and Halba and Arqa in 1266. Name: _____ Date: _____Period: _____ Unit 1, Topic 1.2: Developments in the Dar al-Islam from c. 1200 - c. 1450 AMSCO pgs. [74], The third reign of an-Nasir Muhammad also saw a departure from the traditions of succession and administrative elevation of his predecessors since he observed in his first two reigns that such traditions had been ignored anyway, while sultans were being assassinated and mamluks were abusing other mamluks in bids for power. On 27 February, Turanshah, as new sultan, arrived in Egypt from Hasankeyf, where he had been Emir of Hisn Kayfa since AH 636 (1238/1239 CE), and went straight to al-Mansurah to lead the Egyptian army. [173] In general, the monetary system during the Mamluk period was highly unstable due to frequent monetary changes enacted by various sultans. [90][91] Barquq was made atabeg al-asakir in 1378, giving him command of the Mamluk army,[89] which he used to oust Baraka in 1380. [143], In Egypt, the Mamluks, particularly during an-Nasir Muhammad's third reign, had a similar relationship with the Bedouin as in Syria. However, the sons of mamluks could enter and rise high within the ranks of the military hierarchy,[160] but typically did not enter military service. Ultimately, however, consensus settled on as-Salih's widow, Shajar ad-Durr. The Abbasid Caliphate, for example, was ruled by caliphs, descendants of Muhammed, while the Mamluk Sultanate was ruled by non-descendant rulers: sultans. The Mamluk's largest industry was agriculture, yet their urban areas became increasingly impressive. as being heretical by the Sunni establishment patronized by the Mamluks. The Mamluks were Muslim warriors but were not of Arabic descent. The Mamluk Sultan Qutuz was not ready to let them rest. [162] As emirs were promoted, the number of soldiers in their corps increased, and when rival emirs challenged each other's authority, they would often utilize their respective forces, leading to major disruptions of civilian life. The mamluk was an "owned slave", distinguished from the ghulam, or household slave. Hulagu Khan, a grandson of Genghis Khan and leader of the Ilkhanate subdivision of the Mongol Empire, was marching through the Middle East. The role of a muhtasib was to inspect weights and measures and the quality of goods, maintain legal trade, and to remain vigilant of price gouging. [169] Mamluk emirs also had their own ustadars. After Napoleon Bonaparte weakened the Ottoman Empire by occupying Egypt in the early 19th century, the Ottoman Empire tumbled into civil war. The war started in 1516 which led to the later incorporation of Egypt and its dependencies in the Ottoman Empire, with Mamluk cavalry proving no match for the Ottoman artillery and the janissaries. Source: Ro4444, CC-BY-SA-4.0, Wikimedia Commons. [153] In an anecdotal testament to the caliph's lack of real authority, a group of rebellious mamluks responded to Sultan Lajin's presentation of the Caliph al-Hakim's decree asserting Lajin's authority with the following comment, recorded by Ibn Taghribirdi: "Stupid fellow. A state ruled by slave soldiers of predominantly Turkish, and later Circassian, origin from 1250 to 1517. [143] The Al Fadl tribe eventually lost favor, while the Bedouin tribes of al-Karak were strengthened by the later Bahri sultans. [72] Initially, an-Nasir Muhammad left most of his father's mamluks undisturbed, but in 1311 and 1316, he imprisoned and executed most of them, and again redistributed emirates to his own mamluks. [79] Ahmad relocated to al-Karak and left a deputy to rule on his behalf in Cairo. [155] This was in contrast to the qaranis, who were those in the Royal Mamluks' ranks who had been recruited by a sultan's predecessors and thus lacked khushdashiyyah bonds with the sultan. [11][12][10] The other official name was 'State of the Circassians' (Dawlat al-Jarakisa) during Burji rule. To accomplish this, he instituted a postal network that extended across the cities of Egypt and Syria. The Egyptians followed them into the Battle of Fariskur where the Egyptians utterly destroyed the Crusaders on 6 April. After a first attempt to defeat the Bahriyyah near Gaza failed, an-Nasir Yusuf launched a second expedition against them with al-Mansur Muhammad II of Hama, resulting in a Bahriyyah defeat at Jericho. How did the environment impact the Mamluk Sultanate? [151] It more or less involved the election of a sultan by a council of emirs and mamluks (who would give him an oath of loyalty), the sultan's assumption of the monarchical title al-malik, a state-organized procession through Cairo at the head of which was the sultan, and the reading of the sultan's name in the khutbah (Friday prayer sermon). [38], While various mamluk factions competed for control of Egypt and Syria, the Mongols under the command of Hulagu Khan had sacked Baghdad, the intellectual and spiritual center of the Islamic world, in 1258, and proceeded westward, capturing Aleppo and Damascus. [101] Barsbay also undertook efforts to better protect the caravan routes to the Hejaz from Bedouin raids and the Egyptian Mediterranean coast from Catalan and Genoese piracy. [60], Qalawun's early reign was marked by policies that were meant to gain the support of important societal elements, namely the merchant class, the Muslim bureaucracy and the religious establishment. [148] Cairo remained the capital of the sultanate and its social, economic and administrative center, with the Cairo Citadel serving as the sultan's headquarters. [80] This unorthodox move, together with his seclusive and frivolous behavior and his execution of loyal partisans, ended with Ahmad's deposition and replacement by his half-brother as-Salih Ismail in June 1342. [123] While Ibn Taymiyyah was not a typical representative of Sunni orthodoxy in the sultanate, he was the most prominent Muslim scholar of the Mamluk era and was arrested numerous times by the Mamluk government for his religious teachings, which are still influential in the modern-day Muslim world. In the ensuing half-hour clash, Baybars's men feigned a retreat and were pursued by Kitbuqa. [129] As a result of popular pressure, Coptic Christians had their employment in the bureaucracy terminated at least nine times between the late 13th and mid-15th centuries, and on one occasion, in 1301, the government ordered the closure of all churches. [95] The new Egyptian niyabas were Alexandria, Damanhur and Asyut. The Mamlk Sultanate in the reign of Baybars I (1260-1273) This was a short-term arrangement: Muslim political . The Mamluk Sultanate lasted until 1517 when it was consumed by the expanding Ottoman Empire. [129], In Syria, the Mamluks uprooted the local Maronite and Greek Orthodox Christians from the coastal areas as a means to prevent their potential contact with European powers. [19] The situation was calmed after the intervention of the atabeg al-askar (commander of the military), Fakhr ad-Din ibn Shaykh al-Shuyukh. [37] An-Nasir Yusuf proceeded to besiege al-Mughith and the Bahriyyah at al-Karak, but the growing threat of a Mongol invasion of Syria ultimately led to a reconciliation between an-Nasir Yusuf and al-Mughith, and Baybars's defection to the former. It had its own administrative structure and was under the direct command of the sultan. [129] Coptic bureaucrats would often be restored to their positions after the moment of tension passed. Their presence has had an influence and an impact on the people and customs. [92] Barquq's reign saw the mass recruitment of Circassians (estimated at 5,000 recruits[94]) into the mamluk ranks and the restoration of the Mamluk state's authority throughout its realm in the tradition of the early Mamluk sultans, Baybars and Qalawun. [180] The revenues emanating from the iqta also served as a more stable source of income than other methods the Mamluks sometimes employed, including tax hikes, the sale of administrative posts and extortion of the population. Trade continued nonetheless and despite papal restrictions on trade with the Muslims during the Crusades. [171] The Mamluks introduced greater centralization over the economy by organizing the state bureaucracy, particularly in Cairo (Damascus and Aleppo already had organized bureaucracies), and the Mamluk military hierarchy and its associated iqta system. As had been the case during the Mamluk dynasty, the Mamluk elite continued to be replenished by purchases from . [137] The Mamluks brought about a similar decline of the Armenian Orthodox Church after their capture of the Armenian Cilician Kingdom in 1374, in addition to the raids of the Timurids in 1386 and the conflict between the Timurids and the nomadic Turkmen Aq Qoyunlu and Kara Qoyonlu tribal confederations in Cilicia. Mamluk leaders enjoyed lavish and luxury goods, displaying their power while simultaneously reminding them how far they had come from their slave caste roots. [126][127] The association of Christians with the Mongols, due to the latter's use of Armenian and Georgian Christian auxiliaries, the attempted alliance between the Mongols and the Crusader powers, and the massacre of Muslim communities and the sparing of Christians in cities captured by the Mongols, may have contributed to rising anti-Christian sentiments in the Mamluk era. Create beautiful notes faster than ever before. Test your knowledge with gamified quizzes. [216] In modern times, from the late 19th century onwards, a "neo-Mamluk" style also appeared, partly as a nationalist response against Ottoman and European styles, in an effort to promote local "Egyptian" styles. [68], Khalil's death in 1293 led to period of factional struggle, with Khalil's prepubescent brother, an-Nasir Muhammad, being overthrown the following year by a Mongol mamluk of Qalawun, al-Adil Kitbugha, who in turn was succeeded by a Greek mamluk of Qalawun, Husam ad-Din Lajin. [105], Although the Mamluk Sultanate was ended by the Ottoman conquest, the Mamluks as a "self-perpetuating, largely Turkish-speaking warrior class" continued to influence politics under Ottoman rule. [185] The state's role in Syro-Palestinian agriculture was restricted to the fiscal administration and to the irrigation networks and other aspects of rural infrastructure. The Dar Al-Islam was on its heels, the Islamic Golden Age at its end. [168], The ustadar (from the Arabic ustadh al-dar, "master of the house") was the chief of staff of the sultan, responsible for organizing the royal court's daily activities, managing the personal budget of the sultan and supervising all of the buildings of the Cairo Citadel and its staff. Environment & Geography; Geography of the Middle East. [73] By 1316, the number of mamluks was reduced to 2,000. [114] As such, the ethnically Circassian mamluks who gained prominence with the rise of the Burji regime and became the dominant ethnic element of the government, were educated in the Turkish language and were considered to be Turks by the Arabic-speaking population. While the Ottoman sultan Bayezid II was engaged in Europe, a new round of conflict broke out between Egypt and the Safavid dynasty in Persia in 1501. [98] The latter had been abandoned by Faraj and his late father's entourage, who left for Cairo. [152] More often than not, the sons of sultans were elected by the senior emirs with the ultimate intention that they serve as convenient figureheads presiding over an oligarchy of the emirs. [31] Instead of isolating Aktay as was Aybak's intention, the assignment allowed Aktay to impose extortionate taxes in Upper Egypt and provide him the personal funds to finance his patronage of the Bahriyyah. Having defeated the Hashashin assassins of Persia and successfully besieged the illustrious city of Baghdad in 1258, the Mongols seemed unstoppable. [154] When emirs felt the sultan was not ensuring their benefits, disruptive riots, coup plots or delays to calls for service were all likely scenarios. The Ilkhanate was poised to tread into a new continent: Africa. After so many other cities were destroyed by the Mongols, Cairo became possibly the greatest city in Afro-Eurasia by the end of the 13th century. [43] Upon Qutuz's triumphant return to Cairo, he was assassinated in a Bahri plot. 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